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| Aquilegia canadensis | |
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Scientific classification 
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| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Order: | Ranunculales |
| Family: | Ranunculaceae |
| Genus: | Aquilegia |
| Species: | A. canadensis
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| Binomial name | |
| Aquilegia canadensis | |
| Synonyms | |
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List of synonyms
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Aquilegia canadensis, the Canadian or Canada columbine, eastern red columbine, or wild columbine, is a species of flowering plant in the buttercup family Ranunculaceae. It is an herbaceous perennial native to woodland and rocky slopes in eastern North America. It readily hybridizes with other species in the genus Aquilegia.
Description
[edit]Aquilegia canadensis is an herbaceous perennial in the Ranunculaceae family. It generally grows to 15–90 cm (5.9–35.4 in) tall, and produces branching stems that emerge from a tap-rooted base.[3][4] The fern-like leaves are lobed and grouped in threes, growing from the base and off the flowering stems. The leaves are green to blue-green, and remains evergreen, except for in temperatures above 43 °C (109 °F) or below −23 °C (−9 °F), where they will remain dormant until returned to favorable conditions.[3] The plant grows from a caudex, a vertical underground stem that forms woody rhizomes.[5]
A. canadensis occur naturally in partly to fully shaded woodland environments, and they thrive in sandy or limestone based soils.[3] They prefer soil in a pH range of 6.8-7.5, and does not tolerate prolonged exposure to the sun, as it may stunt it's growth and burn it's leaves.[3] It also does not prefer overly rich soils, as it promotes excessive growth, and may result in a weaker stem and a shorter lifespan.[3]
A. canadensis generally have a long lifespan under the suitable conditions, and have a high tolerance to both drought and cold temperatures, and resides primarily in eastern North America.[3][4]
The flowers of A. canadensis appear in late spring, from May to June, and persist for around 1 month, although timing can vary depending on the conditions of the environment. [3][5] Each flower has five yellow petals, drawn out in a long, red, nectar-bearing spur, and alternates with five red sepals. It also has numerous yellow stamen beneath the corolla, and the entire inflorescence is above the basal foliage. [3][5] The flowers produce abundant nectar, and attract humming birds, bumblebees, and hawkmoths.[3] The ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris) is the primary pollinator across eastern North America, although they also pollinate through bees and moths. [5]
Within flowers, the anthers and stigmas are herkogamous, which plays a big role in the mixed mating system of the flower, deciding whether it will self-fertilize or outcross. [6][7] A. canadensis is capable of producing full seed sets through self-pollination when pollinators are absent, which provides reproductive assurance in small or isolated populations. [7] However, in flowers with higher anther-stigma separation, they exhibit much higher out-crossing success and lower rates of selfing, which suggests that herkogamy reduces rates of self-fertilization.[6] The herkogamy varies mainly through pistil length rather than stamen positioning, and shows a significant genetic component, which suggests that floral morphology can evolve under selection to balance selfing and outcrossing.[6]
After pollination, A. canadensis produce a cluster of five pod-shaped follicles, which taper into a long, slender beak. [3][5] When mature, the follicles split along one side to release the numerous amount of small black seeds.[3][5] Seeds develop rapidly, reaching maturity around two weeks after flowering. [3]
The seeds typically flower in their second year, and natural reseeding allows colonies to persist, despite individual plants having a short lifespan. [3][5] Germination is improved through a cold-moist stratification period, which lasts around 3-4 weeks. [3][5]
Fruit and seed production is influenced by floral morphology and population size. Plants with greater herkogamy tend to produce fewer selfed seeds and higher outcrossing success, while larger populations yield significantly greater fruit and seed sets compared to smaller, more isolated populations. [6][8]
Ecology
[edit]Reproduction
[edit]Aquilegia canadensis experiences a mixed mating system, where they are able to both self and outcross. The species is fully self-compatible, and has the ability to produce nearly full seed sets through only autonomous self-pollination.[7] However, despite being self-compatible, it does not fully compensate for the absence of pollinators, since fruit and seed production is lowered when pollinators are not present.[7] This indicates that selfing only provides partial reproductive assurance.
One major factor that influences the selfing and outcrossing balance is the herkogamy of the anther and stigma. There is genetic variation in the separation of the reproductive structures between different populations, and plants that have greater separation between the anther and stigma have lower rates of autonomous selfing and are more prone to outcrossing.[6] The separation is primarily due to differences in the pistil length, rather than positioning of the structures. The genetic difference in herkogamy between populations suggests that it can evolve through selection to regulate mating strategies.[6]
Pollination is primarily carried out through the Ruby-Throated Hummingbird (Archilochus colubris), which is able to access the nectar stored in the elongated spurs of the flower.[5] In addition, bumblebees, hawk moths, and other bees also contribute to outcrossing between flowers. [3][5] Genetic studies between A. canadensis and it's sister species, A. brevistyla, which is primarily bee-pollinated, have shown that the shift to hummingbird pollination is associated with changes to spur curvature, floral pigmentation, and nectar traits.[9]
Reproductive success is also reliant on the size of the population. Plants that grow in larger and more densely populated sites produce significantly more fruits and seeds per plant, in comparison to plants in smaller populations.[8] Spatial isolation by itself does not have a large effect on reproductive output, but smaller population sizes reduces the opportunities for pollinator visits and outcrossing.[8] Despite this, A. canadensis maintains stable populations through both outcrossing and selfing, allowing the species to persist in various habitats.[3][5]
Disease and herbivory
[edit]Aquilegia canadensis does not generally experience high rates of disease or herbivory in it's native range. The most common issue is caused by leaf miner activity, as they create serpentine trail in the leaves, but is generally not an issue in this species.[5] The damage caused is generally only cosmetic, and does not usually impair plant functions.[5] In addition, A. canadensis is resistant to deer and rabbit browsing, which contributes to the plant's persistence in their specific habitats.[5]
A. canadensis, in addition to their herbivory resistance, also has a chemical defense system. When plant tissues are damaged, A. canadensis releases hydrogen cyanide (HCN).[10] Although concentrations in intact tissues are low, the release of HCN may deter herbivory and protect against insects.
Cultivation
[edit]Aquilegia canadensis is a highly decorative plant, valued for its attractive foliage and showy flowers. For this reason it is widely grown outside its native region, in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere.
The plant grows best in light to moderate shade, and prefers well-drained sandy loams, thriving in limestone-based or circumneutral soils.[3][4][5] Plants grown in soils that are too moist or rich may produce weak plants, and have a shorter lifespan.[5] Despite being a short-lived perennial, it self seeds very readily, allowing it to persist for many years.[3][5] Seedlings generally flower in their second year, and germination is generally enhanced by a 3-4 week cold-moist stratification period, which can happen either naturally in the winter or through refrigeration.[3][5] Mature plants are able to tolerate periods of drought, but growth is best under consistent moisture.[5]
Several cultivars are commonly grown, including 'Corbett', a dwarf form with yellow flowers; 'Nana', which only produces all-yellow flowers; and 'Pink Lanterns', which has pink and white blossoms.[4][5]
Distribution and habitat
[edit]Aquilegia canadensis is a native to eastern and central North America, from Canada to the eastern United States.[3][4] In the United States, it is found from New England and Mid-Atlantic, all the way west to the Great Plains, and south to the Gulf Coast.[4][5] The states it is present in include: AL, AR, CT, DC, DE, FL, GA, IA, IL, IN, KS, KY, MA, MD, ME, MI, MN, MO, MS, NC, ND, NE, NM, NH, NJ, NY, OH, OK, PA, RI, SC, SD, TN, TX, VA, VT, WI, WV and in Canada: MB, NB, ON, QC, SK, BC.[11]
A. canadensis typically inhabits woodlands, forest edges, rocky slopes, and shaded bluffs.[4][5] It will prefer well-drained, sandy or rocky soil, and will thrive in an area that experiences light to moderate shade. A. canadensis is best suited for sites that are not waterlogged or overly nutrient-rich.[3][5] Due to its ability to both self and sexually reproduce, A. canadensis can maintain stable populations across a wide range of habitats. [5]
In culture
[edit]Aquilegia canadensis has been used in several cultures across North America. In several Native American communities, seeds are crushed and rubbed on the hands to act as a love charm.[3] In traditional Persian medicine, the species is listed as a remedy for kidney-related disorders.[12] Today, the species is cultivated in gardens for its ornamental value, as its flowers and ability to thrive in shade have made it a popular feature in gardens. Several cultivars are commonly grown for their features, including their distinct flower color and size.[5]
Gallery
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Flower and seedpod -
In habitat -
Leaves -
The yellow cultivar 'Corbett' -
Illustration
References
[edit]- ^ NatureServe (1 December 2023). "Aquilegia canadensis". NatureServe Network Biodiversity Location Data accessed through NatureServe Explorer. Arlington, Virginia: NatureServe. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
- ^ Salisb. Prodr. Stirp. Chap. Allerton 374 1796
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v "Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center - The University of Texas at Austin". www.wildflower.org. Retrieved 2025-11-10.
- ^ a b c d e f g "USDA Plants Database". plants.usda.gov. Retrieved 2025-11-10.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y "Eastern Red Columbine, Aquilegia canadensis". Wisconsin Horticulture. Retrieved 2025-11-11.
- ^ a b c d e f Herlihy, Christopher R.; Eckert, Christopher G. (July 2007). "Evolutionary Analysis of a Key Floral Trait in Aquilegia Canadensis (Ranunculaceae): Genetic Variation in Herkogamy and ITS Effect on the Mating System". Evolution. 61 (7): 1661–1674. Bibcode:2007Evolu..61.1661H. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00137.x. ISSN 0014-3820. PMID 17598747.
- ^ a b c d Eckert, Christopher G.; Schaefer, Amy (July 1998). "Does self-pollination provide reproductive Assurance in Aquilegia Canadensis (Ranunculaceae)?". American Journal of Botany. 85 (7): 919–924. doi:10.2307/2446357. ISSN 0002-9122. JSTOR 2446357.
- ^ a b c Mavraganis, Katherine; Eckert, Christopher G. (November 2001). "Effects of population size and isolation on reproductive output in Aquilegia canadensis (Ranunculaceae)". Oikos. 95 (2): 300–310. Bibcode:2001Oikos..95..300M. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2001.950212.x. ISSN 0030-1299.
- ^ Edwards, Molly B.; Choi, Gary P. T.; Derieg, Nathan J.; Min, Ya; Diana, Angie C.; Hodges, Scott A.; Mahadevan, L.; Kramer, Elena M.; Ballerini, Evangeline S. (September 2021). "Genetic architecture of floral traits in bee- and hummingbird-pollinated sister species of Aquilegia (columbine)". Evolution. 75 (9): 2197–2216. doi:10.1111/evo.14313. ISSN 0014-3820. PMID 34270789.
- ^ Alfs, Matthew (2001). Edible and Medicinal Plants of Minnesota and Wisconsin. Old Theology Book House. p. 99. ISBN 9780961296438.
- ^ Whittemore, Alan T. (1997). "Aquilegia canadensis". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 3. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
- ^ Rabizadeh, Fatemeh; Mirian, Maryam Sadat; Doosti, Rahele; Kiani-Anbouhi, Roya; Eftekhari, Elahe (2022). "Phytochemical Classification of Medicinal Plants Used in the Treatment of Kidney Disease Based on Traditional Persian Medicine". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2022 (1): 8022599. doi:10.1155/2022/8022599. ISSN 1741-4288. PMC 9357710. PMID 35958915.
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External links
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