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| Solanum americanum | |
|---|---|
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Scientific classification 
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| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Asterids |
| Order: | Solanales |
| Family: | Solanaceae |
| Genus: | Solanum |
| Species: | S. americanum
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| Binomial name | |
| Solanum americanum | |
| Synonyms[1][2] | |
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List
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Solanum americanum, commonly known as American black nightshade,[3] small-flowered nightshade[4] or glossy nightshade, is a herbaceous flowering plant.
Taxonomy
[edit]Solanum americanum is one of the most widespread and morphologically variable species belonging to the section Solanum.[5] It can be confused with other black nightshade species in the Solanum nigrum complex.[6]
Description
[edit]Solanum americanum grows up to 1–1.5 metres (39–59 in) tall and is an annual or short-lived perennial. The leaves are alternate on the branch, and vary greatly in size, up to 10 centimetres (4 in) long and 7 cm (3 in) broad, with a 4 cm (1+1⁄2 in) petiole and a coarsely wavy or toothed margin. The flowers are about 1 cm diameter, white or occasionally light purple, with yellow stamens. The fruit is a shiny black berry 5–10 millimetres (1⁄4–3⁄8 in) diameter, containing numerous small seeds.
Taxonomy
[edit]Solanum americanum is a variable taxon. It is considered by some botanists to be more than one species, and others recognise subspecies.[7] Some botanists have suggested that S. americanum may be conspecific with the European nightshade, S. nigrum.[2]
Distribution and habitat
[edit]It has a wide but uncertain native range. The certain native range encompasses the tropics and subtropics of the Americas, Melanesia, New Guinea, and Australia.[7] The plant is widely naturalised around the tropical Pacific and Indian Oceans, including Hawaiʻi, Indochina, Madagascar and Africa, possibly via anthropogenic introduction in these locales.
Toxicity
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Research indicates the presence of toxic glycoalkaloids, with authorities warning to be careful regarding the use of S. americanum as herbal medicine or food.[6] The green fruit is particularly poisonous and eating unripe berries has caused the death of children.[8] Ripe berries and foliage may also cause poisoning,[8] though the toxicity seems to diminish somewhat with ripening.[9] This is due to high levels of the glycoalkaloids, solanine and solamargine.[10] Other toxins present in the plant include chaconine, solasonine, solanigrine, gitogenin and traces of saponins,[11] as well as the tropane alkaloids scopolamine and hyoscyamine (an isomer of atropine).[12]
Significant amounts of solasodine (0.65%) have been found in the green berries.[13] The ripe fruit also contains 0.3–0.45% solasonine,[13] and acetylcholine, and has a cholinesterase-inhibiting effect on human plasma.[11] In Transkei, rural people have a high incidence of esophageal cancer thought to be a result of using S. americanum as a food.[11] Livestock can also be poisoned by high nitrate levels in the leaves.[11][14] Toxicity varies widely depending on the genetic strain and the location conditions, like soil and rainfall.[8][11] One field guide of poisonous plants advises, "unless you are certain that the berries are from an edible strain, leave them alone."[15]
Uses
[edit]Culinary
[edit]Despite the toxic compounds that they contain, cooked greens and ripe berries of S. americanum are eaten throughout their range.[16]
The ripe fruit is cooked into jams and preserves, or eaten raw.[11] In Africa, South America, New Guinea and Oceania the young green shoots of S. americanum are cooked and eaten as greens, after boiling in water.[17][18] The cooking water used for boiling the leaves is discarded as it contains the soluble alkaloids.[11] In Kenya, Cameroon and Papua New Guinea the leaves are sold as a leaf vegetable in the markets.[5] The leaves are used in a West Indian stew, and it is known as branched calaloo.[11] In Mauritius it is cultivated and eaten as a pot-herb and used in bouillon.[5] Experts warn that care should be taken since numerous toxins are reported with levels varying with local conditions and varieties.[8][13][15]
Medicine
[edit]It is used as a medicine in Cameroon, Kenya, Hawaiʻi, Panama, Sierra Leone, Tanzania and Pakistan.[5] In China a tea from the whole plant is used to treat cancer of the cervix.[11] It is used as folk medicine for a wide range of conditions, being applied topically and internally.[11]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ "Solanum nodiflorum". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
- ^ a b "Solanum americanum". Tropicos. Missouri Botanical Gardens – via The Plant List. Note that this website has been superseded by World Flora Online
- ^ NRCS. "Solanum americanum". PLANTS Database. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved 17 November 2015.
- ^ BSBI List 2007 (xls). Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland. Archived from the original (xls) on 2015-06-26. Retrieved 2014-10-17.
- ^ a b c d Edmonds & Chweya 1997, p. 93
- ^ a b Mohy-ud-dint, A.; Khan, Z.; Ahmad, M.; Kashmiri, M. A. (2010). "Chemotaxonomic value of alkaloids in Solanum nigrum complex" (PDF). Pakistan Journal of Botany. 42 (1): 653–660. Retrieved 29 May 2013.
- ^ a b Conn, Barry J. (2001). "Solanum americanum – New South Wales Flora Online". PlantNET – The Plant Information Network System. 2.0. Sydney, Australia: The Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust. Retrieved 29 May 2013.
- ^ a b c d Tull, D. (1999). Edible and Useful Plants of Texas and the Southwest: A Practical Guide. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-78164-1.
- ^ Niering, William A.; Olmstead, Nancy C. (1985) [1979]. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers, Eastern Region. Knopf. p. 804. ISBN 0-394-50432-1.
- ^ Al Chami, L.; Mendez, R.; Chataing, B.; O'Callaghan, J.; Usubilliga, A.; Lacruz, L. (2003). "Toxicological effects of α-solamargine in experimental animals". Phytotherapy Research. 17 (3): 254–8. doi:10.1002/ptr.1122. PMID 12672156. S2CID 86042610.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Nellis, David W. (1997). "Black nightshade Solanum americanum". Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press. pp. 76, 243. ISBN 978-1-56164-111-6.
- ^ "Solanum americanum – American Black Nightshade, White Nightshade, Smallflower Nightshade". Southeastern Arizona Wildflowers and Plants. 10 March 2010.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link) - ^ a b c Edmonds & Chweya 1997, p. 66
- ^ Bolat, Roy. "Solanum nigrum".
- ^ a b Turner, Nancy J.; Aderka, P.von (2009). The North American guide to common poisonous plants and mushrooms. Timber Press. pp. 181–2. ISBN 978-0-88192-929-4.
- ^ Särkinen, Tiina; Poczai, Peter; Barboza, Gloria E.; Van der Weerden, Gerard M.; Baden, Maria; Knapp, Sandra (2018). "A revision of the Old World Black Nightshades (Morelloid clade of Solanum L., Solanaceae)". PhytoKeys (106): 1–223. Bibcode:2018PhytK.106....1S. doi:10.3897/phytokeys.106.21991. PMC 6070582. PMID 30072843.
- ^ "Factsheet – *Solanum americanum". Electronic Flora of South Australia. South Australian Government. Retrieved 29 May 2013.
- ^ Olet, E. A.; Heun, M.; Lye, K. A. (2005). "African crop or poisonous nightshade; the enigma of poisonous or edible black nightshade solved". African Journal of Ecology. 43 (2): 158–161. Bibcode:2005AfJEc..43..158O. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00556.x.
External links
[edit]- Solanum americanum: Occurrence data from Global Biodiversity Information Facility
- "Solanum americanum". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture.
- Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk: Solanum americanum (very detailed description)
- Identifying nightshades as weeds. Archived 2006-03-14 at the Wayback Machine.
- Edmonds, Jennifer M.; Chweya, James A. (1997). Black Nightshades: Solanum Nigrum L. and Related Species. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. Vol. 15. Bioversity International. ISBN 978-92-9043-321-7.
- "Solanum americanum Mill". Solanaceae Source. – Images, specimens and a full list of scientific synonyms. Full descriptions and identification keys coming soon!
- Plants for a future
- Medina, Freddy R.; Ritchie, Lawrence S. (October–December 1980). "Molluscicidal Activity of the Puerto Rican Weed, Solanum nodiflorum, against Snail Hosts of Fasciola hepatica". Economic Botany. 34 (4): 368–375. Bibcode:1980EcBot..34..368M. doi:10.1007/bf02858313. JSTOR 4254217. S2CID 21001631.