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| Linaria vulgaris | |
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| Linaria vulgaris flowers | |
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| Linaria vulgaris ffuit | |
Scientific classification 
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| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Asterids |
| Order: | Lamiales |
| Family: | Plantaginaceae |
| Genus: | Linaria |
| Species: | L. vulgaris
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| Binomial name | |
| Linaria vulgaris | |
Linaria vulgaris, the common toadflax,[1][2], is a species of flowering plant in the family Plantaginaceae, native to Europe, and northern, central and eastern Asia.[3] It has also been introduced to North America and is now common there.[4]
Taxonomy
[edit]Three subspecies are accepted by the Plants of the World Online database:[3]
- Linaria vulgaris subsp. vulgaris — Europe, northern Asia
- Linaria vulgaris subsp. chinensis (Bunge ex Debeaux) D.Y.Hong — eastern Asia (China, Korea)
- Linaria vulgaris subsp. pinetorum Kosachev — Altai Mountains of central Asia
The closely related Linaria acutiloba Fisch. from central and northeastern Asia,[5] is treated by the Flora of China as an additional subspecies, Linaria vulgaris subsp. acutiloba (Fisch.) D.Y.Hong.[6]
Description
[edit]_-_Oslo,_Norway_2020-09-16_(01).jpg)
It is a perennial plant with short spreading roots, erect to decumbent stems 15–90 cm (6–35 in) high, with fine, threadlike, glaucous blue-green leaves 2–8 cm (3⁄4–3+1⁄4 in) long and 1–5 mm (0.04–0.20 in) broad. The flowers are similar to those of the snapdragon but smaller and slenderer, 25–33 mm (0.98–1.30 in) long, pale yellow except for an area of the lower tip which is variably orange-yellow toned, borne in dense terminal racemes from mid summer to mid autumn (June to October in Britain).[2][7] The flowers are mostly visited by bumblebees.[8] Rarely, symmetrical five-spurred peloric flowers can be found.[2] The fruit is a oblong to globose capsule 5–11 mm (0.20–0.43 in) long and 5–7 mm (0.20–0.28 in) broad, containing numerous small seeds.[2]
Ecology
[edit]
The plant is widespread on ruderal spots, along roads, in dunes, and on disturbed and cultivated land.[2]
Because the flower is largely closed by its underlip, pollination requires strong insects such as bees and bumblebees (Bombus species).[2]
Linaria vulgaris is a food plant for a large number of insects such as the sweet gale moth (Acronicta euphorbiae), mouse moth (Amphipyra tragopoginis), silver Y (Autographa gamma), Calophasia lunula, gorgone checkerspot (Charidryas gorgone carlota), toadflax pug (Eupithecia linariata), satyr pug (Eupithecia satyrata), Falseuncaria ruficiliana, bog fritillary (Boloria eunomia), Pyrrhia umbra, brown rustic (Rusina ferruginea), and Stenoptilia bipunctidactyla.
The plant may be mildly toxic to livestock, but has also been used to treat cattle with rumination problems.[9]
Fossil record
[edit]Seeds of the common toadflax were identified from the Hoxnian interglacial strata at Clacton. Records have also come from the Weichselian glaciation strata in Essex, Huntingdonshire, Surrey and North Wales. This evidence makes the native status of the plant in Britain quite evident despite the very strong association that it has today with waste places and man-made habitats.[10]
Cultivation and uses
[edit]While most commonly found as a wildflower, toadflax is sometimes cultivated for cut flowers, which are long-lasting in a vase. Like the related snapdragons (Antirrhinum), they are often grown in children's gardens for the "snapping" flowers which can be made to "talk" by squeezing them at the base of the corolla.[11]
The plant requires ample drainage, but is otherwise adaptable to a variety of conditions. It has escaped from cultivation in North America where it is now naturalised in many U.S. states and Canadian provinces, common on roadsides and in poor soils,.[12]
Traditional medicine
[edit]![[icon]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small} | This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2025) |
The species has a long history of use in traditional medicine; information is available in Barker (2001).[9][13]
Other names
[edit]Because this plant grows as a weed, it has acquired a large number of local colloquial names, including brideweed, bridewort, butter and eggs (but see Lotus corniculatus),[4] butter haycocks, bread and butter, bunny haycocks, bunny mouths, calf's snout, Continental weed, dead men's bones, devil's flax, devil's flower, doggies, dragon bushes, eggs and bacon (but see Lotus corniculatus), eggs and butter, false flax, flaxweed, fluellen (but see Kickxia), gallweed, gallwort, impudent lawyer, Jacob's ladder (but see Polemonium), lion's mouth, monkey flower (but see Mimulus), North American ramsted, rabbit flower, rancid, ransted, snapdragon (but see Antirrhinum), wild flax, wild snapdragon, wild tobacco (but see Nicotiana), yellow rod, and yellow toadflax.[11]
References
[edit]- ^ "Common Toadflax Linaria vulgaris Mill". PlantAtlas. Retrieved 2025-11-07.
- ^ a b c d e f Blamey, Marjorie; Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). The Illustrated Flora of Britain and Northern Europe. Hodder & Stoughton. p. 358. ISBN 0-340-40170-2.
- ^ a b "Linaria vulgaris Mill". Plants of the World Online. 2007-08-06. Retrieved 2025-11-07.
- ^ a b Dickinson, T.; Metsger, D.; Bull, J.; Dickinson, R. (2004). The ROM Field Guide to Wildflowers of Ontario. Toronto: Royal Ontario Museum. p. 367. ISBN 0771076525. OCLC 54691765.
- ^ "Linaria acutiloba Fisch". Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 2025-11-07.
- ^ "Linaria vulgaris subsp. acutiloba in Flora of China @ efloras.org". eFloras.org Home. Retrieved 2025-11-07.
- ^ Streeter, David (2010). Flower Guide. Collins. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-00-718389-0.
- ^ Van Der Kooi, C. J.; Pen, I.; Staal, M.; Stavenga, D. G.; Elzenga, J. T. M. (2015). "Competition for pollinators and intra-communal spectral dissimilarity of flowers". Plant Biology. 18 (1): 56–62. doi:10.1111/plb.12328. PMID 25754608.
- ^ a b Bond, W.; Davies, G. "The biology and non-chemical control of Common Toadflax (Linaria vulgaris Mill.)" (PDF). Retrieved 2025-11-07.
- ^ Godwin, Harry (1975). The History of the British Flora, A Factual Basis for Phytogeography. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20254-X.
- ^ a b Mabey, R. (1996). Flora Britannica. Sinclair-Stevenson. ISBN 1-85619-377-2.
- ^ Britton, Nathaniel Lord; Brown, Addison (1970) [first published 1913]. An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States and Canada. Vol. 3. Dover Publications. p. 177. ISBN 0-486-22642-5.
- ^ Barker, Julian (2001). The medicinal flora of Britain and Northwestern Europe. West Wickham: Winter Press. ISBN 978-1-874581-63-5.
External links
[edit]
- Species Profile - Yellow Toadflax (Linaria vulgaris), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for yellow toadflax.
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